Wednesday, June 01, 2005
Archaeology of the North
This is the kernel of the my research on the archaeology of Scandinavia, Northern and Eastern Europe for the prehistory of those regions, and the place of the Slavs in its history.
Archaeological research needed for the recovery of the early history (pre-history) of the Sorbs and the Polabian Slavs in general.
Note: Archaeology is a strange form of historical study. It is akin to recovering a lost drama, when the words have disappeared and only the stage and the props survive.
Aberg, Nils. Das nordische Kulturgebiet in Mitteleuropa während der jüngeren Steinzeig. Uppsala, 1918.
Aberg, Nils. Bronzezeitliche und früheisenzeitliche Chronologie
I-III. (Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och antikvitets Akademien) Stockholm, 1930-32.
Ailio, Julius. Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde in Finland. Helsingfors, 1909.
Almgren, Oscar. «Zur Bedeutung des Markomannreichs für die Entwickelung der germanische Industrie in der frühen Keiserzeit.» Mannus 5 (1913).
Aspelin, J. R. Antiquités du Nord Finno-Ougrien. Vol. 1. Helsingfors, 1877.
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times. London, 1913.
Bellows, H. A. The Poetic Edda. New York, 1923.
Boe, Johs. Le Finmarkien, Matériaux pour servir à l'étude de la civilisation humaine dans l'extrême nord de l'Europe. 1934.
Boye, Wilhelm. Trouvailles de cercueils en chêne de l'âge du bronze au Danemark. Copenhague, 1896.
Brogger, A.W. «Den arktiske stenalder i Norge.» Widenskabs-Selskabets Skrifter. ii. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. Kristiania, 1909. Summary in German. Unity of Northern stone age, including Russia.
Broholm, H. C. and Margrethe Halde. Les costumes de l'âge danois du bronze. (Nordiske Fortidsminder -- Antiquités scandinaves, 2) Copenkagen, 1911-35).
Bugge, Sophus. Norroen Fornkvaedhi. Christiania, 1867.
Déchelette, Joseph. Manuel d'archéologie. Paris, 1910.
Ebert, . Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte. Aarne Europaeus. «Finland: Steinzeit.» Vol. 3:331. Gunnar Ekholm. «Nordischer Kreis.» Vol. 9.
Ekholm, Gunnar. «Die erste Besiedelung des Ostseegebietes.» Wiener Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 12 (1925).
Erdtman, O. Gunnar E. «Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen von Torfmooren und marinen Sedimenten in Südwest-Schweden.» Arhiv för Botanik. xvii,10 (Stockholm, 1.921)
Feist, Sigmund. Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Germanen. Berlin, 1913.
Hoernes, M. Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst in Europa. Vienna, 1898.
Johansen, K. Friis. «La Trouvaille de Hoby.» Nordiske Fortidsminder. 2,1 (Copenhagen, 1911). Silver banquet service for the dead.
Knorr, Friedrich. Friedhöfe der älteren Eisenzeit in Schleswig-Holstein. 1 (Kiel, 1910).
Kossinna, Gustaf. «Der Ursprung der Urfinnen und Urindogermanen, und ihre Ausbreitung nach dem Osten.» Mannus-Bibliothek. 1 (1909)
Kossinna, Gustaf. Die deutsche Vorgeschichte, eine hervorragend nationale Wissenschaft. Würzburg, 1915.
Kossinna, Gustaf. «Die Wandalen in Nordjutland.» Mannus 21 (1929)
Lindqvist, Sune. «Le problème des objets de schiste dans l'âge de pierre en Suède.» Acta Archaeologica. 6 (Copenhagen, 1935) 99.
Montelius, O. «Palaeolithic Implements found in Sweden.» The Antiquaries Journal. 1 ( ) 98.
Montelius, O. Les temps préhistoriques en Suède et dans les autres pays scandinaves. Paris, 1895.
Montelius, O. Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit in Nord-Deutschland und Skandinavien. Braunschweig, 1900.
Montelius, O. «La chronologie préhistorique en France et en d'autres pays celtiques.» L'anthropologie. ___ (1901) 620.
Montelius, O. «Der Handel in der Vorzeit.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. ___ (1910) 265.
Müller, Sophus. Nordische Altertumskunde. 1 (Strassburg, 1897) 360. Burials.
Müller, Sophus. «La trouvaille de Juellinge.» Nordiske Fortidsminder. 2,1 (Copenhagen, 1911).
Rohde, Erwin. Psyche. Leipzig, 1894. Burials.
Rydbeck, Otto. «The Changes of Level of the Stone Age Sea and the Earliest Settling of man in Scandinavia.» Bulletin de la Société Royale des Lettres de Lund. 1927-28.
Sarauw, Georg F. L. «Ein steinzeitlicher Wohnplatz im Moor by Mullerup auf Seeland.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 3-4 (Leipzig, 1911 and 1914).
Schmidt, Hubert. «Die Luren von Daberkow.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 7 (1915) 85.
Schuchardt, C. Die Urnenfriedhöfe in Niedersachsen. Hannover, 1911.
Schwantes, Gustav. «Die Gräber der ältesten Eisenzeit im östlichen Hannover.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 1 (1909) ___.
Schwantes, G. «Nordisches Paläolithikum und Mesolithikum.» Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Völkerkunde in Hamburg. 12 (1928).
Schwantes, G. Description of Meiendorf. Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins. I,1 (1935).
Schwantes, G. «Das Beil asl Scheide zwischen Paläolithikum und Neolithikum.» Archiv für Anthropologie. N.F. 20 ( )
Schwantes, G. Die Bedeutung der Lyngby-Zivilisation für die Gliederung der Steinzeit. Hamburg, 1923.
Shetelig, Haakon. Préhistoire de la Norvège. (Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie A,v) Oslo, 1926.
Shetelig, Haakon. «Les pointes de flèches en schiste de Norvège.» Bulletin de la Société prhéhistorique française. (1928) 256.
Shetelig, Haakon and Hjalmar Falk. Scandinavian Archaeology. Tr: E. V. Gordon. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937.
Sijmons and Gering. Die Lieder der Edda. Halle, 1906-31.
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Kupfer- und Bronzezeit in Nord- und Ostrussland.» Finska Fornminnesför. Tidskrift. 25 (Helsingfors, 1911) 1:142.
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Bronzecelte vom sog. Ananino-typus. Berührungen zwischen den Bronzekulturen Skandinaviens und des Wolga-Kamalandes.» Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen. 12 (1912) 76. Oak-coffins: well preserved textiles.
Vigfusson and Powell, .. Corpus Poeticum Boreale. Oxford, 1883.
Willers, Heinrich. Die römische Bronzeeimer von Hemmoor. Hannover and Leipzig, 1901.
Shetelig, Haakon and Hjalmar Falk. Scandinavian Archaeology. Transl. E. V. Gordon. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937. Enormously important work, especially for amber, textiles, and long distance trade and technological transfer. Important also for the Frisians, the Merovingians, and the Vikings.
The Lyngby Culture in Denmark: The earliest traces of post-glacial habitation in the North. «The most characteristic form is a kind of axe-like weapon of reindeer horn, in shape very like a hoe, and as a rule fitted with a small sharp blade of flint.» (14)
The Fosna culture of Norway, and the Kosma Culture of the Finnmark on the Artic Ocean, not yet properly surveyed at the time of writing. «The geological conditions indicate that it may go back to the oldest post-glacial period. The group consist of dwelling-stations along the old coast-lines of the Arctic Ocean and the first few years' researches have already established that a primitive population lied at that time along the whole north coast of Norway as far as the boundary with Finland. In the preliminary communications about the finds it is indicated that many features point to relaionship with the palaeolithic stone age in Siberia and Mongolia. It has further been stated that we must reckon with a possible invasion of eastern palaeolithic people through northern Russia» (21).
The Next Phase -- Maglemose:
Sarauw, Georg F. L. «Ein steinzeitlicher Wohnplatz im Moor by Mullerup auf Seeland.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 3-4 (Leipzig, 1911 and 1914).
The Maglemose culture: «The beginning of the warm post-glacial period thus falls in the latter part of the ancylus age. This period with a relatively warm and dry climate is known to geologists as the boreale period; it corresponds roughly to the period of Maglemose culture.» (9)
«The oldest known dwelling-sites that give a complete picture of primitive civilization in the north come from the time when the great fir forests had spread over southern Scandinavia and the Danish isles were connected by a solid land with Jutland, Skane, and northern Germany.» (23) «For one of the dwelling-sites a wooden oar is preserved, showing that these people moved about the lake in boats.» (23). They lived from hunting, fishing, fowling, and nuts and seeds. Theirs were in a sense lake-dwellings. «Articles of bone and horn are in general so prevalent that in the north the period has often been given the name of 'bone age'.» (24) «Animals' teeth with holes bored in them were worn as ornaments, and once a pendant of amber was found.» (24f) «The microliths are a feature which associate the Maglemose culture with the West-European Tardenoisian culture; and the Tardenoisian falls in the transition between the palaeolithic and neolithic periods.» (26) «Of sculpture only one small isolated piece is known, a representation of a bear worked in amber and ornamented with lines (Pl. 3).» (27f)
Klampenborg: «the tradition of the bone age is met by new cultural forms, which afterwards develop gradually into leading forms; and similarly in the flora of these dwelling-sites we are enabled to see the transition from fir forests to oak.» (33) Klampenborg illustrates «the true relation between the two culture periods of Maglemose and Ertebolle, between the bone and the age of the kitchen middens.» (33f) Kitchen midden have primitive pottery, but not Maglemose (33).
The Kitchen-middens:
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times. London, 1913.
«They existed entirely on hunting, fishing, and the gathering ofshell-fish, and their only domestic animal was the dog.» (36)
«The fir forests were replaced by oak; the elk and urox practically disappeared, and the red deer now ranked first among the wild animals.» (36) «The 'bone age' is succeeded in the kitchen middens by the first real 'flint age'.» (37) «No true microlithic work appears in the kitchen middens.» (37). Only macrolithic, with new technologies. Grinding of stone. Use of glacial remains on moraines, etc. «Apart from the supreme importance of the flints, the culture of the middens is marked by two other momentous innovtions. These are the technical use of varieties of volcanic rock, and the potters' art.» (38)
«On the whole the artistic activities which can be traced in the culture of the middens is poor, undoubtedly retrograde compared with the older work from Maglemose [...] It seems that in this respect the kitchen middens were already leading up to the later Danish stone age, so conspicuous in technical development, but poor in true art.» (39) Water side settlements found by ocean and lakes.
Maglemose and Ertebolle: there is a break between the two cultures. In some settlements, Klampenborg, we can see cross-pollination, in orders, Brabrand, pure Ertebolle, without Maglemose. (40ff). It seems that Ertebolle were new comers, settled in Denmark, but not in Scandinavia proper, which remained conservative. (44).
Finland: «The geologicallevels go back to the same period as the kitchen middens in Denmark, but the forms ofthe culture have totally different connexions, eastwards with Russia and the southern Baltic. it is clear that this early settlement in Finland has no contact with Scandinavia.» (45).
Ertebolle culture: proto-neolithic, with faint similarities with Danube and France.
Conclusions to the Stone Age:
«Throughout this long period, which according to geological chronology lasted at least some 4,000 years, the Norse population lived in primitive conditions, very like those of the aborigines in Australia or Tierra del Fuego. [...] The oldest known tame animals in the world are the dogs of Maglemose and Svaerdborg; they were a very big sort of dog, though not unusualy tall, crossed with tame wolf. In the kitchen middens this large type of dog becomes very common, and a new smaller variety also appears.» (48)
«From the kitchen-midden period three usable skulls are known in Denmark: one dolichocephalic cranium of a man from Fanerup in Jutland, one mesocephalic cranium of a woman from Holbaek in Zealand, and one brachycephalic man from Kassemose in Zealand.» (50) «even as early as the Maglemose period we must recognize a mixed population in Scandinavia» (51).
The Tri-partite culture of the Neolithic:
True neolithic: highly diversified complex.
Bandkeramik: diffusion from the mouth of the Danube.
Megalithic: Atlantic connexions, with sea-voyages.
Battle-axe, single grave people between the first two, a mobile and varying culture which spread from Central Europe.
«there was in Denmark and Skane a wealth of natural flint, the best raw material for the industry of the stone age, and a special source of wealth also in the amber found on the west coast of Jutland. These are lands which to this day are among the first in wealth of important monuments and antiquities from this ancient flowering of neolithic civilisation.» (53)
«The megalithic culture is very definitely linked to the Atlantic coasts, and it spread over great distances by way of the intercourse between Scandinavia, Britain, Brittany and Spain, but on the other hand it does not touch the central regions of the continent. [...] Stone-age ornaments of amber from Jutland are found both in western and southern Europe, and amber ornaments of British type ar found in Jutland.» (58)
Megalithic antiquities: «The relation is so unmistakable that it suggests an immigration of western European people into Denmark, and, if this supposition is right, the source would probably be the British Isles.» (59) «It is generally believed that the flint daggers were modelled on older daggers of metal which were in use in the south of Europe, and they undoubtedly mark a high point in the technical treatment of flint.» (61) «After the extremely rough and simple pots and bowls of the kitchen middens there follows in the transition period [...] a somewhat better ware [..] On the whole it is an excellent pottery that is known from the passage-graves.» (62)
«One thing is at least certain, that a very complicated mixing of races was already far advanced in the later stone age in Scandinavia; but we do not know when or where this mixing was accomplished.» (60)
«By the side of the pottery, flint implements, battle-axes, and maces of volcanic rock, the ornaments should also be named -- and especially ornaments of amber -- as an important element in the finds from megalithic graves. Among the ornaments of bone are various forms of pins and perforted plates worn as pendants, together with beads. Amber was the most precious material available in northern Europe at that time, and the amber coast of Jutland was undoubtedly an important source of wealth. Export of amber from Denmark is attested by finds from Norway, England, Brittany, and Spain. Even from very early times in the later stone age collections of amber ornaments are found buried as treasures in Jutland, up to 4,000 ornaments in a single find; and ornaments of amber are a constant and prominent feature among the antiquities derived from the passage-graves. Characteristic forms are the beads shaped like double axes, or double mace-heads with a hole bored through them; these were very clearly made on the model of the actual weapon. Otherwise the forms found are generally cubic or ring-shaped beads, oblong or flat pendants, and buttons with a passage bored through them from the under side in the form of [an inverted V]. These last belong to the latest phase of the stone age, continue into the bronze age, and are common to Great Britain and Scandinavia, as is indeed well known.» (63)
«The megalithic culture during its spread in Scandinavia was, of course, constantly imposing itself upon the primitive manner of life belonging to the preceding age, the life which we know from the kitchen middens; and the tradition from the old hunting life still survived beside the new civilization.» (64) «The simpler, more primitive forms of life which we know from the dwelling-sites along the coasts thus have a place in the complete picture of megalithic civilization in Scandinavia.» (65)
Battle-axe, single grave: «From the continental region to the south foreign groups made their way in and encroached upon the megalithic domain. The most important of these is the group represented by the 'single graves' in Jutland.» (65) «The articles in the grave are almost invariable. In a man's grave will be found a battle-axe with a hole for the haft, made of trap, or a thick-butted axe of ground flint; also a flint chisel and a sharp flint blade, a flat stone mace, an earthenware beaker, and two large disks of amber which belonged to the clothing. In a woman's grave there are always long neck-bands or strings of amber beads, and more rarely, an earthenware beaker. The articles are quite different in form from those found in megalithic graves.» (66)
«The later forms of the single graves advance northward until they reach the most northerly part of Jutland, and in a number of places it can be seen clearly that the single-grave people have overcome the megalithic people.» (67)
«A faceted battle-axe of copper has been found in Skane, and it must have been imported across the Baltic. It was by this route that the type came to Scandinavia; it is found very frequently in Sweden and appears also in the east of Norway.» (68) «a specimen made of copper is known which was found in eastern Russia and presumably came there by way of export from its original home. From its place of origin in central Europe the type makes its way to north Germany, and from there across the Baltic to Bornholm and Skane without touching the Danish area.» (68)
Ailio, Julius. Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde in Finland. Helsingfors, 1909.
«The single-grave culture makes its way into Finland in the earlier part of the passage-grave period. It appears here in a country which is wholly untouched by megalithic influences.» (70)
«It has been observed that the battle-axe culture in its expansion over large areas of Europe carried with it those forms which philological researchers declare to be characteristic of the earliest Indo-European culture, and it may be deduced from this that the spread of the battle-axe marks the expansion of the oldest Indo-European people. The immigration of the battle-axe people into the north must then be the starting-point of the Germanic-speaking people known in later times in Scandinavia.» (72)
Critique of the last paragraph: The single grave people are a neolithic group which emerges in Central Europe. If they spoke an IE language, this means that they would have separated from the Iranian groups in Palaeolithic times -- and thus would have no neolithic vocabulary in common with them. This we know to be untrue, as IE has considerable neolithic vocabulary. There is also a problem of diffusion: the single-grave people are also found in Finland, where no ancient trace of IE remains, other than loan-words. The diffusion of the single-grave people does not correspond with IE. Since IE has so much neolithic vocabulary, the split cannot have taken place earlier than the later part of the neolithic. IE must be early bronze age.
The Arctic Stone Age
Brogger, A.W. «Den arktiske stenalder i Norge.» Widenskabs-Selskabets Skrifter. ii. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. Kristiania, 1909. Summary in German. Unity of Northern stone age, including Russia.
Ebert, . Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte. Aarne Europaeus. «Finland: Steinzeit.» Vol. 3:331. Gunnar Ekholm. «Nordischer Kreis.» Vol. 9.
«Analyses have demonstrated that axes of identical matrial are distributed over large areas. This is known of the rare stone grorudite, which is found only in the immediate neighbourhood of Oslo, while axes made from it are found over the whole of south-eastern Norway [...] There was another such centre for green slate at Olonets near Lake Ladoga, from where the products were conveyed to Finland and Esthonia.» (76).
«A late peculiar form appears in the maces shaped like animal heads, often designed with admirable art. Their home is on the Russian side in East Carelia, but they are found not infrequently in Finland and sporadically in Sweden. They are an expression of that keen delight in plastic animal shapes which distinguishes the whole of the east-European stone age, and which we shall have occasion later to discuss more fully.» (77)
Lindqvist, Sune. «Le problème des objets de schiste dans l'âge de pierre en Suède.» Acta Archaeologica. 6 (Copenhagen, 1935) 99.
Shetelig, Haakon. «Les pointes de flèches en schiste de Norvège.» Bulletin de la Société prhéhistorique française. (1928) 256.
«The pottery thus gives a striking illustration of the profound difference between the eastern and western sides of the Baltic during the later stone age. The Aland islands belong wholly to Sweden, while Finland belongs to the Baltico-Russian area of culture. Inasmuch as the culture of the whole of this north European area is uniform in its more essential features, this uniformity must be due to a parallel development from the common basis, the older culture of the bone age, which has already been described. We must beware of underestimating the communications already established by this time over great distances. Especially iluminating in this respect is the occurrence of amber ornaments in the north of Scandinavia. Amber was an exceedingly precious material at this period, and these ornaments made on the amber coasts of Jutland and Prussia often give valuable information about trade-routes and the communications between the various inhabited areas during the stone age. In the south of Norway amber ornaments have been found near Stavanger in Jaeren; they had been imported from Jutland. Amber from Prussia has been found in Finland and Sweden, and from Sweden it found its way farther overland to the north-west of Norway, were we have important finds of /// hoards of Prussian amber ornaments. In these we have an indubitable proof of communication between the neolithic peoples over the whole of the Scandinavian area, and this inference is confirmed by many other evidences. Ornaments of slate of Finnish type are found in Norway; Swedish articles of slate are found in Finland, and weapons of Carelian type, shaped like animals heads, were imported into Sweden. The culture of the hunting people was not a hindrance to distance communications; on the contrary, the population during this primitive stage was very mobile and wandered frequently from place to place.» (81f)
«Special mention must be made of one find which sheds much light on the trade in flint. Near Bjursele on the estuary of the River Byske in Västerbotten, /// about midway between Umea and Haparande, whole collections of flint axes and other stone objects have been discovered time after time during the last century, and all within a very limited extent of ground. This locality was evidently a dwelling-site during the Arctic stone age, but it is likewise a place where shole stores of these excellent implements of foreign flint are found: in all about 175 flint axes are known from this place. In the stone age, the site was on an arm of the sea which afforded harbourage, and the place was clearly a trading station for flint axes. In passing we may note the highly interesting fact that flint from Skane was taken to the north of Sweden by sea.» (82-83)
«Finland was, practically speaking, unaffected by importation of flint from southern Scandinavia; altogether ten finds of such flint are known, all from south-western Finland: see Ailio, Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde, p. 68. But large quantities of Russian flint are found as the material for arrowheads and scrapers. This is only one of the indications that the Finnish stone age had its most important connexions towards the east.» (83n2)
The Arctic stone age, particularly the more southern locations, was influenced by the megalithic culture in the most southern parts of Scandinavia. «Here we have the form of culture which is well named submegalithic; it is strongly affected by megalithic civilization, but does not become identical with it, and in particular lacks the great stone graves which were the most conspicuous expression of communal life and belief among the megalithic people.» (84)
Best example of submegalithic: village built on logs in a bog in Dagsmosse near Alvastra in Oestergötland. Its remains are megalithic in type. «The types of the axes found demonstrate clearly a connexion with the neighbouring megalithic district in Västergötland, and a bead of amber shaped like a megalithic double-edged axe undoubtedly came from the same direction.» (84) Also found: remains of domestic animals and corn. «The grains are six-lined barley, the identical variety cultivated by the pile-dwellers in central Europeand still known in modern times among the Lapps of northern Scandinavia. [...] the pottery, on the other hand, is the same as in the eastern Swedish dwelling-sites.» (85)
Shetelig, Haakon. Préhistoire de la Norvège. (Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie A,v) Oslo, 1926.
«The conditions are least complicated in Finland, since only two cultural elements are encountered there, the battle-axe culture which represents an immigration from the south, and on the other side a dwelling-site culture which has its roots in the country itself as far back as habitation can be traced, and in its development stands in closest relation to the east-European stone age. It is now the unanimous opinion among Finnish archaeologists that this dwelling-site culture was the possession of the earliest Finno-Ugrian people, the race which constitutes the principal element of the present population of Finland.» (94)
Kossinna, Gustaf. «Der Ursprung der Urfinnen und Urindogermanen, und ihre Ausbreitung nach dem Osten.» Mannus-Bibliothek. 1 (1909)
Kossinna, Gustaf. Die deutsche Vorgeschichte, eine hervorragend nationale Wissenschaft. Würzburg, 1915.
Aberg, Nils. Das nordische Kulturgebiet in Mitteleuropa während der jüngeren Steinzeig. Uppsala, 1918.
Feist, Sigmund. Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Germanen. Berlin, 1913.
«Now that these conventionalized pictures are explained by impulses from the Baltic lands, we will recall that we have other evidences that the Scandinavian peninsula was brought into relations with the eastern European stone culture. The most important of these evidences was the importation of Prussian amber ornaments, which has already been mentioned, and they include among other forms small sculptured images of men or animals. We will recall the animal figure from Linnesoy, north of Trondhjem, and a man's head in amber from Västergötland, both of which are Prussian images. This taste for making small plastic images is introduced into Scandinavia also. At the excavation of Solsem cave at Leka, just mentioned, a little bone figure of a bird was found, which from its type might well have been a piece imported from the Baltic; but zoologically the image is identified s a great auk (Alca impennis), and therefore it is in all probability Norwegian. A small human head of /// soapstone from Roras is nearly related to similar pieces of amber from the Baltic region, but the Norwegian variety of stone affords evidence that this head is a Scandinavian product.» (115f)
«We may also recall the little animal figure of amber from the Maglemose period in Denmark. But in the neolithic period these small Scandinavian images of animals must have their closest connexions with the Baltic and the east-European stone-age culture. In East Prussia, Poland, and Russia we find a large numbe of these small images of men and animals, made of amber, dropstone, bone, and even flint, while such images have no home in the south of Scandinavia, or in central and western Europe.» (116)
«The true home of the animal-head weapons is Olonets and Carelia. half a score of pieces are found in Finland, three in Sweden; a number of the Finnish specimens are importations from the adjacent parts of Russia, but others are Finnish products. The type is characteristic of the 'comb-pottery' culture which we mentioned earlier. [...] Where the rendering is successful, it is almost always the elk or bear which supplies the model for the head.» (117)
Aspelin, J. R. Antiquités du Nord Finno-Ougrien. Vol. 1. Helsingfors, 1877.
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Kupfer- und Bronzezeit in Nord- und Ostrussland.» Finska Fornminnesför. Tidskrift. 25 (Helsingfors, 1911) 1:142.
Figures of Prussian amber provided the model for a bone comb found on the island of Gotland, and for an ornament found in Västergötland. (119)
Clay images found near Jätteböle on the Aland islands, and Pihtipudas in Eastern Finland: «These clay images must have been idols, and they invite comparison with the similar small images from the lands around the Danube and from the north of the Balkan peninsula; they show a surprisingly close correspondence with the finds from Butmir in Bosnia. Here we have evidence of far distant cultural connexions, of an influence which made its way to the Baltic lands across Silesia and Prussia.» (121)
Hoernes, M. Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst in Europa. Vienna, 1898.
[Beginning here, the notes are sketchy. Read carefully from page 122 on.]
«The European copper age is in Scandinavia a stone age with a few isolated copper articles; but it is a stone age which has taken colour from a more southerly civilization where metal had already attained to a position of importance. In the Scandinavian peninsula north of Skane not a single copper piece of this kind has yet been found, nor in Finland either; in this most northerly region of Europe the copper age is marked only by a reflex of the early metal forms, appearing in the daggers of flint and the battle-axes of stone.» (124)
«[...] it can be established beyond doubt that the bronze age in central Europe was first brought into being by influences from Italy, and that a large proportion of these northerly bronzes were directly imported Italian products. But at the same time it can also be shown that even at this early state a beginning had been made in casting bronze locally north of the Alps as well.» (125)
Montelius, O. Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit in Nord-Deutschland und Skandinavien. Braunschweig, 1900.
Montelius, O. «La chronologie préhistorique en France et en d'autres pays celtiques.» L'anthropologie. ___ (1901) 620.
Montelius, O. «Der Handel in der Vorzeit.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. ___ (1910) 265.
Déchelette, Joseph. Manuel d'archéologie. Paris, 1910.
Montelius, O. Les temps préhistoriques en Suède et dans les autres pays scandinaves. Paris, 1895.
Aberg, Nils. Bronzezeitliche und früheisenzeitliche Chronologie I-III. (Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och antikvitets Akademien) Stockholm, 1930-32.
Page 130: amber handle for bronze swords made in Scandinavia.
«Some articles [of bronze] were cast in permanent moulds of stone ormetal; some were cast in moulds of clay or sand, and for the more difficult objects the more complex method à cire perdue was employed.» (138)
Schmidt, Hubert. «Die Luren von Daberkow.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 7 (1915) 85.
Concerning the rich supply of bronze in Scandinavia: «It has been conclusively established that the amber from the west coast of Jutland was the source of wealth which made possible the importation of this bronze and gold to Denmark.»
«In Greece amber beads are found in large numbers in the shaft-graves at Mycene, as also in the Mycenaean dome tombs.» (140)
In the Bronze age, «Communications with southern Europe no longer went mainly by way of the Elbe, but rather by the south coast of the Baltic, perhaps, as has usually been assumed, because the amber from Prussia began to play a more important part in foreign markets.» (140)
«It is very natural that bronze should follow the routes which had already been established by the flint trade [...]» (141)
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Bronzecelte vom sog. Ananino-typus. Berührungen zwischen den Bronzekulturen Skandinaviens und des Wolga-Kamalandes.» Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen. 12 (1912) 76.
Oak-coffins: well preserved textiles.
Boye, Wilhelm. Trouvailles de cercueils en chêne de l'âge du bronze au Danemark. Copenhague, 1896.
Broholm, H. C. and Margrethe Halde. Les costumes de l'âge danois du bronze. (Nordiske Fortidsminder -- Antiquités scandinaves, 2) Copenkagen, 1911-35).
«The form of burial (urn-graves below a level surface), together with the transition from bronze to iron, was brought in, as we can plainly see, by influences from the great urn-field groups in the east of central Europe.» (151) Note to myself: Slavs? Indo-Europeans?
Burials: see Erwin Rohde. Psyche. Leipzig, 1894. and Müller, Sophus. Nordische Altertumskunde. 1 (Strassburg, 1897) 360.
Schuchardt, C. Die Urnenfriedhöfe in Niedersachsen. Hannover, 1911.
Schwantes, Gustav. «Die Gräber der ältesten Eisenzeit im östlichen Hannover.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 1 (1909) ___.
Knorr, Friedrich. Friedhöfe der älteren Eisenzeit in Schleswig-Holstein. 1 (Kiel, 1910).
«In Finland, practically speaking, there are no finds from the iron age before the second century A.D. The only exception is a find of three bronze neck-rings, from the bog of Kiukais, of the Scandinavian type belonging to the first phase of the iron age: See Aarne Europaeus in Finska Fornminnesföreningens Tidskrift. 32 (...) 192.» (181n1)
Steensby, H. P. «Pytheas» Geografisk Tidskrift. 24 (Copenhagen, 1917-18) 12.
The Roman period: «As has been fully established, communications from here [Italy] passed along the Elbe to Jutland and along the Vistula to the Baltic and Sweden. By these routes Roman manufactured goods were dispatched to the north, and also much of the new Germanic work produced in the kingdom of the Marcomanni.» (192)
Archaeological research needed for the recovery of the early history (pre-history) of the Sorbs and the Polabian Slavs in general.
Note: Archaeology is a strange form of historical study. It is akin to recovering a lost drama, when the words have disappeared and only the stage and the props survive.
Aberg, Nils. Das nordische Kulturgebiet in Mitteleuropa während der jüngeren Steinzeig. Uppsala, 1918.
Aberg, Nils. Bronzezeitliche und früheisenzeitliche Chronologie
I-III. (Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och antikvitets Akademien) Stockholm, 1930-32.
Ailio, Julius. Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde in Finland. Helsingfors, 1909.
Almgren, Oscar. «Zur Bedeutung des Markomannreichs für die Entwickelung der germanische Industrie in der frühen Keiserzeit.» Mannus 5 (1913).
Aspelin, J. R. Antiquités du Nord Finno-Ougrien. Vol. 1. Helsingfors, 1877.
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times. London, 1913.
Bellows, H. A. The Poetic Edda. New York, 1923.
Boe, Johs. Le Finmarkien, Matériaux pour servir à l'étude de la civilisation humaine dans l'extrême nord de l'Europe. 1934.
Boye, Wilhelm. Trouvailles de cercueils en chêne de l'âge du bronze au Danemark. Copenhague, 1896.
Brogger, A.W. «Den arktiske stenalder i Norge.» Widenskabs-Selskabets Skrifter. ii. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. Kristiania, 1909. Summary in German. Unity of Northern stone age, including Russia.
Broholm, H. C. and Margrethe Halde. Les costumes de l'âge danois du bronze. (Nordiske Fortidsminder -- Antiquités scandinaves, 2) Copenkagen, 1911-35).
Bugge, Sophus. Norroen Fornkvaedhi. Christiania, 1867.
Déchelette, Joseph. Manuel d'archéologie. Paris, 1910.
Ebert, . Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte. Aarne Europaeus. «Finland: Steinzeit.» Vol. 3:331. Gunnar Ekholm. «Nordischer Kreis.» Vol. 9.
Ekholm, Gunnar. «Die erste Besiedelung des Ostseegebietes.» Wiener Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 12 (1925).
Erdtman, O. Gunnar E. «Pollenanalytische Untersuchungen von Torfmooren und marinen Sedimenten in Südwest-Schweden.» Arhiv för Botanik. xvii,10 (Stockholm, 1.921)
Feist, Sigmund. Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Germanen. Berlin, 1913.
Hoernes, M. Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst in Europa. Vienna, 1898.
Johansen, K. Friis. «La Trouvaille de Hoby.» Nordiske Fortidsminder. 2,1 (Copenhagen, 1911). Silver banquet service for the dead.
Knorr, Friedrich. Friedhöfe der älteren Eisenzeit in Schleswig-Holstein. 1 (Kiel, 1910).
Kossinna, Gustaf. «Der Ursprung der Urfinnen und Urindogermanen, und ihre Ausbreitung nach dem Osten.» Mannus-Bibliothek. 1 (1909)
Kossinna, Gustaf. Die deutsche Vorgeschichte, eine hervorragend nationale Wissenschaft. Würzburg, 1915.
Kossinna, Gustaf. «Die Wandalen in Nordjutland.» Mannus 21 (1929)
Lindqvist, Sune. «Le problème des objets de schiste dans l'âge de pierre en Suède.» Acta Archaeologica. 6 (Copenhagen, 1935) 99.
Montelius, O. «Palaeolithic Implements found in Sweden.» The Antiquaries Journal. 1 ( ) 98.
Montelius, O. Les temps préhistoriques en Suède et dans les autres pays scandinaves. Paris, 1895.
Montelius, O. Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit in Nord-Deutschland und Skandinavien. Braunschweig, 1900.
Montelius, O. «La chronologie préhistorique en France et en d'autres pays celtiques.» L'anthropologie. ___ (1901) 620.
Montelius, O. «Der Handel in der Vorzeit.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. ___ (1910) 265.
Müller, Sophus. Nordische Altertumskunde. 1 (Strassburg, 1897) 360. Burials.
Müller, Sophus. «La trouvaille de Juellinge.» Nordiske Fortidsminder. 2,1 (Copenhagen, 1911).
Rohde, Erwin. Psyche. Leipzig, 1894. Burials.
Rydbeck, Otto. «The Changes of Level of the Stone Age Sea and the Earliest Settling of man in Scandinavia.» Bulletin de la Société Royale des Lettres de Lund. 1927-28.
Sarauw, Georg F. L. «Ein steinzeitlicher Wohnplatz im Moor by Mullerup auf Seeland.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 3-4 (Leipzig, 1911 and 1914).
Schmidt, Hubert. «Die Luren von Daberkow.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 7 (1915) 85.
Schuchardt, C. Die Urnenfriedhöfe in Niedersachsen. Hannover, 1911.
Schwantes, Gustav. «Die Gräber der ältesten Eisenzeit im östlichen Hannover.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 1 (1909) ___.
Schwantes, G. «Nordisches Paläolithikum und Mesolithikum.» Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Völkerkunde in Hamburg. 12 (1928).
Schwantes, G. Description of Meiendorf. Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins. I,1 (1935).
Schwantes, G. «Das Beil asl Scheide zwischen Paläolithikum und Neolithikum.» Archiv für Anthropologie. N.F. 20 ( )
Schwantes, G. Die Bedeutung der Lyngby-Zivilisation für die Gliederung der Steinzeit. Hamburg, 1923.
Shetelig, Haakon. Préhistoire de la Norvège. (Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie A,v) Oslo, 1926.
Shetelig, Haakon. «Les pointes de flèches en schiste de Norvège.» Bulletin de la Société prhéhistorique française. (1928) 256.
Shetelig, Haakon and Hjalmar Falk. Scandinavian Archaeology. Tr: E. V. Gordon. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937.
Sijmons and Gering. Die Lieder der Edda. Halle, 1906-31.
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Kupfer- und Bronzezeit in Nord- und Ostrussland.» Finska Fornminnesför. Tidskrift. 25 (Helsingfors, 1911) 1:142.
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Bronzecelte vom sog. Ananino-typus. Berührungen zwischen den Bronzekulturen Skandinaviens und des Wolga-Kamalandes.» Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen. 12 (1912) 76. Oak-coffins: well preserved textiles.
Vigfusson and Powell, .. Corpus Poeticum Boreale. Oxford, 1883.
Willers, Heinrich. Die römische Bronzeeimer von Hemmoor. Hannover and Leipzig, 1901.
Shetelig, Haakon and Hjalmar Falk. Scandinavian Archaeology. Transl. E. V. Gordon. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937. Enormously important work, especially for amber, textiles, and long distance trade and technological transfer. Important also for the Frisians, the Merovingians, and the Vikings.
The Lyngby Culture in Denmark: The earliest traces of post-glacial habitation in the North. «The most characteristic form is a kind of axe-like weapon of reindeer horn, in shape very like a hoe, and as a rule fitted with a small sharp blade of flint.» (14)
The Fosna culture of Norway, and the Kosma Culture of the Finnmark on the Artic Ocean, not yet properly surveyed at the time of writing. «The geological conditions indicate that it may go back to the oldest post-glacial period. The group consist of dwelling-stations along the old coast-lines of the Arctic Ocean and the first few years' researches have already established that a primitive population lied at that time along the whole north coast of Norway as far as the boundary with Finland. In the preliminary communications about the finds it is indicated that many features point to relaionship with the palaeolithic stone age in Siberia and Mongolia. It has further been stated that we must reckon with a possible invasion of eastern palaeolithic people through northern Russia» (21).
The Next Phase -- Maglemose:
Sarauw, Georg F. L. «Ein steinzeitlicher Wohnplatz im Moor by Mullerup auf Seeland.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 3-4 (Leipzig, 1911 and 1914).
The Maglemose culture: «The beginning of the warm post-glacial period thus falls in the latter part of the ancylus age. This period with a relatively warm and dry climate is known to geologists as the boreale period; it corresponds roughly to the period of Maglemose culture.» (9)
«The oldest known dwelling-sites that give a complete picture of primitive civilization in the north come from the time when the great fir forests had spread over southern Scandinavia and the Danish isles were connected by a solid land with Jutland, Skane, and northern Germany.» (23) «For one of the dwelling-sites a wooden oar is preserved, showing that these people moved about the lake in boats.» (23). They lived from hunting, fishing, fowling, and nuts and seeds. Theirs were in a sense lake-dwellings. «Articles of bone and horn are in general so prevalent that in the north the period has often been given the name of 'bone age'.» (24) «Animals' teeth with holes bored in them were worn as ornaments, and once a pendant of amber was found.» (24f) «The microliths are a feature which associate the Maglemose culture with the West-European Tardenoisian culture; and the Tardenoisian falls in the transition between the palaeolithic and neolithic periods.» (26) «Of sculpture only one small isolated piece is known, a representation of a bear worked in amber and ornamented with lines (Pl. 3).» (27f)
Klampenborg: «the tradition of the bone age is met by new cultural forms, which afterwards develop gradually into leading forms; and similarly in the flora of these dwelling-sites we are enabled to see the transition from fir forests to oak.» (33) Klampenborg illustrates «the true relation between the two culture periods of Maglemose and Ertebolle, between the bone and the age of the kitchen middens.» (33f) Kitchen midden have primitive pottery, but not Maglemose (33).
The Kitchen-middens:
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times. London, 1913.
«They existed entirely on hunting, fishing, and the gathering ofshell-fish, and their only domestic animal was the dog.» (36)
«The fir forests were replaced by oak; the elk and urox practically disappeared, and the red deer now ranked first among the wild animals.» (36) «The 'bone age' is succeeded in the kitchen middens by the first real 'flint age'.» (37) «No true microlithic work appears in the kitchen middens.» (37). Only macrolithic, with new technologies. Grinding of stone. Use of glacial remains on moraines, etc. «Apart from the supreme importance of the flints, the culture of the middens is marked by two other momentous innovtions. These are the technical use of varieties of volcanic rock, and the potters' art.» (38)
«On the whole the artistic activities which can be traced in the culture of the middens is poor, undoubtedly retrograde compared with the older work from Maglemose [...] It seems that in this respect the kitchen middens were already leading up to the later Danish stone age, so conspicuous in technical development, but poor in true art.» (39) Water side settlements found by ocean and lakes.
Maglemose and Ertebolle: there is a break between the two cultures. In some settlements, Klampenborg, we can see cross-pollination, in orders, Brabrand, pure Ertebolle, without Maglemose. (40ff). It seems that Ertebolle were new comers, settled in Denmark, but not in Scandinavia proper, which remained conservative. (44).
Finland: «The geologicallevels go back to the same period as the kitchen middens in Denmark, but the forms ofthe culture have totally different connexions, eastwards with Russia and the southern Baltic. it is clear that this early settlement in Finland has no contact with Scandinavia.» (45).
Ertebolle culture: proto-neolithic, with faint similarities with Danube and France.
Conclusions to the Stone Age:
«Throughout this long period, which according to geological chronology lasted at least some 4,000 years, the Norse population lived in primitive conditions, very like those of the aborigines in Australia or Tierra del Fuego. [...] The oldest known tame animals in the world are the dogs of Maglemose and Svaerdborg; they were a very big sort of dog, though not unusualy tall, crossed with tame wolf. In the kitchen middens this large type of dog becomes very common, and a new smaller variety also appears.» (48)
«From the kitchen-midden period three usable skulls are known in Denmark: one dolichocephalic cranium of a man from Fanerup in Jutland, one mesocephalic cranium of a woman from Holbaek in Zealand, and one brachycephalic man from Kassemose in Zealand.» (50) «even as early as the Maglemose period we must recognize a mixed population in Scandinavia» (51).
The Tri-partite culture of the Neolithic:
True neolithic: highly diversified complex.
Bandkeramik: diffusion from the mouth of the Danube.
Megalithic: Atlantic connexions, with sea-voyages.
Battle-axe, single grave people between the first two, a mobile and varying culture which spread from Central Europe.
«there was in Denmark and Skane a wealth of natural flint, the best raw material for the industry of the stone age, and a special source of wealth also in the amber found on the west coast of Jutland. These are lands which to this day are among the first in wealth of important monuments and antiquities from this ancient flowering of neolithic civilisation.» (53)
«The megalithic culture is very definitely linked to the Atlantic coasts, and it spread over great distances by way of the intercourse between Scandinavia, Britain, Brittany and Spain, but on the other hand it does not touch the central regions of the continent. [...] Stone-age ornaments of amber from Jutland are found both in western and southern Europe, and amber ornaments of British type ar found in Jutland.» (58)
Megalithic antiquities: «The relation is so unmistakable that it suggests an immigration of western European people into Denmark, and, if this supposition is right, the source would probably be the British Isles.» (59) «It is generally believed that the flint daggers were modelled on older daggers of metal which were in use in the south of Europe, and they undoubtedly mark a high point in the technical treatment of flint.» (61) «After the extremely rough and simple pots and bowls of the kitchen middens there follows in the transition period [...] a somewhat better ware [..] On the whole it is an excellent pottery that is known from the passage-graves.» (62)
«One thing is at least certain, that a very complicated mixing of races was already far advanced in the later stone age in Scandinavia; but we do not know when or where this mixing was accomplished.» (60)
«By the side of the pottery, flint implements, battle-axes, and maces of volcanic rock, the ornaments should also be named -- and especially ornaments of amber -- as an important element in the finds from megalithic graves. Among the ornaments of bone are various forms of pins and perforted plates worn as pendants, together with beads. Amber was the most precious material available in northern Europe at that time, and the amber coast of Jutland was undoubtedly an important source of wealth. Export of amber from Denmark is attested by finds from Norway, England, Brittany, and Spain. Even from very early times in the later stone age collections of amber ornaments are found buried as treasures in Jutland, up to 4,000 ornaments in a single find; and ornaments of amber are a constant and prominent feature among the antiquities derived from the passage-graves. Characteristic forms are the beads shaped like double axes, or double mace-heads with a hole bored through them; these were very clearly made on the model of the actual weapon. Otherwise the forms found are generally cubic or ring-shaped beads, oblong or flat pendants, and buttons with a passage bored through them from the under side in the form of [an inverted V]. These last belong to the latest phase of the stone age, continue into the bronze age, and are common to Great Britain and Scandinavia, as is indeed well known.» (63)
«The megalithic culture during its spread in Scandinavia was, of course, constantly imposing itself upon the primitive manner of life belonging to the preceding age, the life which we know from the kitchen middens; and the tradition from the old hunting life still survived beside the new civilization.» (64) «The simpler, more primitive forms of life which we know from the dwelling-sites along the coasts thus have a place in the complete picture of megalithic civilization in Scandinavia.» (65)
Battle-axe, single grave: «From the continental region to the south foreign groups made their way in and encroached upon the megalithic domain. The most important of these is the group represented by the 'single graves' in Jutland.» (65) «The articles in the grave are almost invariable. In a man's grave will be found a battle-axe with a hole for the haft, made of trap, or a thick-butted axe of ground flint; also a flint chisel and a sharp flint blade, a flat stone mace, an earthenware beaker, and two large disks of amber which belonged to the clothing. In a woman's grave there are always long neck-bands or strings of amber beads, and more rarely, an earthenware beaker. The articles are quite different in form from those found in megalithic graves.» (66)
«The later forms of the single graves advance northward until they reach the most northerly part of Jutland, and in a number of places it can be seen clearly that the single-grave people have overcome the megalithic people.» (67)
«A faceted battle-axe of copper has been found in Skane, and it must have been imported across the Baltic. It was by this route that the type came to Scandinavia; it is found very frequently in Sweden and appears also in the east of Norway.» (68) «a specimen made of copper is known which was found in eastern Russia and presumably came there by way of export from its original home. From its place of origin in central Europe the type makes its way to north Germany, and from there across the Baltic to Bornholm and Skane without touching the Danish area.» (68)
Ailio, Julius. Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde in Finland. Helsingfors, 1909.
«The single-grave culture makes its way into Finland in the earlier part of the passage-grave period. It appears here in a country which is wholly untouched by megalithic influences.» (70)
«It has been observed that the battle-axe culture in its expansion over large areas of Europe carried with it those forms which philological researchers declare to be characteristic of the earliest Indo-European culture, and it may be deduced from this that the spread of the battle-axe marks the expansion of the oldest Indo-European people. The immigration of the battle-axe people into the north must then be the starting-point of the Germanic-speaking people known in later times in Scandinavia.» (72)
Critique of the last paragraph: The single grave people are a neolithic group which emerges in Central Europe. If they spoke an IE language, this means that they would have separated from the Iranian groups in Palaeolithic times -- and thus would have no neolithic vocabulary in common with them. This we know to be untrue, as IE has considerable neolithic vocabulary. There is also a problem of diffusion: the single-grave people are also found in Finland, where no ancient trace of IE remains, other than loan-words. The diffusion of the single-grave people does not correspond with IE. Since IE has so much neolithic vocabulary, the split cannot have taken place earlier than the later part of the neolithic. IE must be early bronze age.
The Arctic Stone Age
Brogger, A.W. «Den arktiske stenalder i Norge.» Widenskabs-Selskabets Skrifter. ii. Hist.-Filos. Klasse. Kristiania, 1909. Summary in German. Unity of Northern stone age, including Russia.
Ebert, . Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte. Aarne Europaeus. «Finland: Steinzeit.» Vol. 3:331. Gunnar Ekholm. «Nordischer Kreis.» Vol. 9.
«Analyses have demonstrated that axes of identical matrial are distributed over large areas. This is known of the rare stone grorudite, which is found only in the immediate neighbourhood of Oslo, while axes made from it are found over the whole of south-eastern Norway [...] There was another such centre for green slate at Olonets near Lake Ladoga, from where the products were conveyed to Finland and Esthonia.» (76).
«A late peculiar form appears in the maces shaped like animal heads, often designed with admirable art. Their home is on the Russian side in East Carelia, but they are found not infrequently in Finland and sporadically in Sweden. They are an expression of that keen delight in plastic animal shapes which distinguishes the whole of the east-European stone age, and which we shall have occasion later to discuss more fully.» (77)
Lindqvist, Sune. «Le problème des objets de schiste dans l'âge de pierre en Suède.» Acta Archaeologica. 6 (Copenhagen, 1935) 99.
Shetelig, Haakon. «Les pointes de flèches en schiste de Norvège.» Bulletin de la Société prhéhistorique française. (1928) 256.
«The pottery thus gives a striking illustration of the profound difference between the eastern and western sides of the Baltic during the later stone age. The Aland islands belong wholly to Sweden, while Finland belongs to the Baltico-Russian area of culture. Inasmuch as the culture of the whole of this north European area is uniform in its more essential features, this uniformity must be due to a parallel development from the common basis, the older culture of the bone age, which has already been described. We must beware of underestimating the communications already established by this time over great distances. Especially iluminating in this respect is the occurrence of amber ornaments in the north of Scandinavia. Amber was an exceedingly precious material at this period, and these ornaments made on the amber coasts of Jutland and Prussia often give valuable information about trade-routes and the communications between the various inhabited areas during the stone age. In the south of Norway amber ornaments have been found near Stavanger in Jaeren; they had been imported from Jutland. Amber from Prussia has been found in Finland and Sweden, and from Sweden it found its way farther overland to the north-west of Norway, were we have important finds of /// hoards of Prussian amber ornaments. In these we have an indubitable proof of communication between the neolithic peoples over the whole of the Scandinavian area, and this inference is confirmed by many other evidences. Ornaments of slate of Finnish type are found in Norway; Swedish articles of slate are found in Finland, and weapons of Carelian type, shaped like animals heads, were imported into Sweden. The culture of the hunting people was not a hindrance to distance communications; on the contrary, the population during this primitive stage was very mobile and wandered frequently from place to place.» (81f)
«Special mention must be made of one find which sheds much light on the trade in flint. Near Bjursele on the estuary of the River Byske in Västerbotten, /// about midway between Umea and Haparande, whole collections of flint axes and other stone objects have been discovered time after time during the last century, and all within a very limited extent of ground. This locality was evidently a dwelling-site during the Arctic stone age, but it is likewise a place where shole stores of these excellent implements of foreign flint are found: in all about 175 flint axes are known from this place. In the stone age, the site was on an arm of the sea which afforded harbourage, and the place was clearly a trading station for flint axes. In passing we may note the highly interesting fact that flint from Skane was taken to the north of Sweden by sea.» (82-83)
«Finland was, practically speaking, unaffected by importation of flint from southern Scandinavia; altogether ten finds of such flint are known, all from south-western Finland: see Ailio, Die steinzeitlichen Wohnplatzfunde, p. 68. But large quantities of Russian flint are found as the material for arrowheads and scrapers. This is only one of the indications that the Finnish stone age had its most important connexions towards the east.» (83n2)
The Arctic stone age, particularly the more southern locations, was influenced by the megalithic culture in the most southern parts of Scandinavia. «Here we have the form of culture which is well named submegalithic; it is strongly affected by megalithic civilization, but does not become identical with it, and in particular lacks the great stone graves which were the most conspicuous expression of communal life and belief among the megalithic people.» (84)
Best example of submegalithic: village built on logs in a bog in Dagsmosse near Alvastra in Oestergötland. Its remains are megalithic in type. «The types of the axes found demonstrate clearly a connexion with the neighbouring megalithic district in Västergötland, and a bead of amber shaped like a megalithic double-edged axe undoubtedly came from the same direction.» (84) Also found: remains of domestic animals and corn. «The grains are six-lined barley, the identical variety cultivated by the pile-dwellers in central Europeand still known in modern times among the Lapps of northern Scandinavia. [...] the pottery, on the other hand, is the same as in the eastern Swedish dwelling-sites.» (85)
Shetelig, Haakon. Préhistoire de la Norvège. (Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie A,v) Oslo, 1926.
«The conditions are least complicated in Finland, since only two cultural elements are encountered there, the battle-axe culture which represents an immigration from the south, and on the other side a dwelling-site culture which has its roots in the country itself as far back as habitation can be traced, and in its development stands in closest relation to the east-European stone age. It is now the unanimous opinion among Finnish archaeologists that this dwelling-site culture was the possession of the earliest Finno-Ugrian people, the race which constitutes the principal element of the present population of Finland.» (94)
Kossinna, Gustaf. «Der Ursprung der Urfinnen und Urindogermanen, und ihre Ausbreitung nach dem Osten.» Mannus-Bibliothek. 1 (1909)
Kossinna, Gustaf. Die deutsche Vorgeschichte, eine hervorragend nationale Wissenschaft. Würzburg, 1915.
Aberg, Nils. Das nordische Kulturgebiet in Mitteleuropa während der jüngeren Steinzeig. Uppsala, 1918.
Feist, Sigmund. Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Germanen. Berlin, 1913.
«Now that these conventionalized pictures are explained by impulses from the Baltic lands, we will recall that we have other evidences that the Scandinavian peninsula was brought into relations with the eastern European stone culture. The most important of these evidences was the importation of Prussian amber ornaments, which has already been mentioned, and they include among other forms small sculptured images of men or animals. We will recall the animal figure from Linnesoy, north of Trondhjem, and a man's head in amber from Västergötland, both of which are Prussian images. This taste for making small plastic images is introduced into Scandinavia also. At the excavation of Solsem cave at Leka, just mentioned, a little bone figure of a bird was found, which from its type might well have been a piece imported from the Baltic; but zoologically the image is identified s a great auk (Alca impennis), and therefore it is in all probability Norwegian. A small human head of /// soapstone from Roras is nearly related to similar pieces of amber from the Baltic region, but the Norwegian variety of stone affords evidence that this head is a Scandinavian product.» (115f)
«We may also recall the little animal figure of amber from the Maglemose period in Denmark. But in the neolithic period these small Scandinavian images of animals must have their closest connexions with the Baltic and the east-European stone-age culture. In East Prussia, Poland, and Russia we find a large numbe of these small images of men and animals, made of amber, dropstone, bone, and even flint, while such images have no home in the south of Scandinavia, or in central and western Europe.» (116)
«The true home of the animal-head weapons is Olonets and Carelia. half a score of pieces are found in Finland, three in Sweden; a number of the Finnish specimens are importations from the adjacent parts of Russia, but others are Finnish products. The type is characteristic of the 'comb-pottery' culture which we mentioned earlier. [...] Where the rendering is successful, it is almost always the elk or bear which supplies the model for the head.» (117)
Aspelin, J. R. Antiquités du Nord Finno-Ougrien. Vol. 1. Helsingfors, 1877.
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Kupfer- und Bronzezeit in Nord- und Ostrussland.» Finska Fornminnesför. Tidskrift. 25 (Helsingfors, 1911) 1:142.
Figures of Prussian amber provided the model for a bone comb found on the island of Gotland, and for an ornament found in Västergötland. (119)
Clay images found near Jätteböle on the Aland islands, and Pihtipudas in Eastern Finland: «These clay images must have been idols, and they invite comparison with the similar small images from the lands around the Danube and from the north of the Balkan peninsula; they show a surprisingly close correspondence with the finds from Butmir in Bosnia. Here we have evidence of far distant cultural connexions, of an influence which made its way to the Baltic lands across Silesia and Prussia.» (121)
Hoernes, M. Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst in Europa. Vienna, 1898.
[Beginning here, the notes are sketchy. Read carefully from page 122 on.]
«The European copper age is in Scandinavia a stone age with a few isolated copper articles; but it is a stone age which has taken colour from a more southerly civilization where metal had already attained to a position of importance. In the Scandinavian peninsula north of Skane not a single copper piece of this kind has yet been found, nor in Finland either; in this most northerly region of Europe the copper age is marked only by a reflex of the early metal forms, appearing in the daggers of flint and the battle-axes of stone.» (124)
«[...] it can be established beyond doubt that the bronze age in central Europe was first brought into being by influences from Italy, and that a large proportion of these northerly bronzes were directly imported Italian products. But at the same time it can also be shown that even at this early state a beginning had been made in casting bronze locally north of the Alps as well.» (125)
Montelius, O. Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit in Nord-Deutschland und Skandinavien. Braunschweig, 1900.
Montelius, O. «La chronologie préhistorique en France et en d'autres pays celtiques.» L'anthropologie. ___ (1901) 620.
Montelius, O. «Der Handel in der Vorzeit.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. ___ (1910) 265.
Déchelette, Joseph. Manuel d'archéologie. Paris, 1910.
Montelius, O. Les temps préhistoriques en Suède et dans les autres pays scandinaves. Paris, 1895.
Aberg, Nils. Bronzezeitliche und früheisenzeitliche Chronologie I-III. (Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och antikvitets Akademien) Stockholm, 1930-32.
Page 130: amber handle for bronze swords made in Scandinavia.
«Some articles [of bronze] were cast in permanent moulds of stone ormetal; some were cast in moulds of clay or sand, and for the more difficult objects the more complex method à cire perdue was employed.» (138)
Schmidt, Hubert. «Die Luren von Daberkow.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 7 (1915) 85.
Concerning the rich supply of bronze in Scandinavia: «It has been conclusively established that the amber from the west coast of Jutland was the source of wealth which made possible the importation of this bronze and gold to Denmark.»
«In Greece amber beads are found in large numbers in the shaft-graves at Mycene, as also in the Mycenaean dome tombs.» (140)
In the Bronze age, «Communications with southern Europe no longer went mainly by way of the Elbe, but rather by the south coast of the Baltic, perhaps, as has usually been assumed, because the amber from Prussia began to play a more important part in foreign markets.» (140)
«It is very natural that bronze should follow the routes which had already been established by the flint trade [...]» (141)
Tallgren, A. M. «Die Bronzecelte vom sog. Ananino-typus. Berührungen zwischen den Bronzekulturen Skandinaviens und des Wolga-Kamalandes.» Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen. 12 (1912) 76.
Oak-coffins: well preserved textiles.
Boye, Wilhelm. Trouvailles de cercueils en chêne de l'âge du bronze au Danemark. Copenhague, 1896.
Broholm, H. C. and Margrethe Halde. Les costumes de l'âge danois du bronze. (Nordiske Fortidsminder -- Antiquités scandinaves, 2) Copenkagen, 1911-35).
«The form of burial (urn-graves below a level surface), together with the transition from bronze to iron, was brought in, as we can plainly see, by influences from the great urn-field groups in the east of central Europe.» (151) Note to myself: Slavs? Indo-Europeans?
Burials: see Erwin Rohde. Psyche. Leipzig, 1894. and Müller, Sophus. Nordische Altertumskunde. 1 (Strassburg, 1897) 360.
Schuchardt, C. Die Urnenfriedhöfe in Niedersachsen. Hannover, 1911.
Schwantes, Gustav. «Die Gräber der ältesten Eisenzeit im östlichen Hannover.» Prähistorische Zeitschrift. 1 (1909) ___.
Knorr, Friedrich. Friedhöfe der älteren Eisenzeit in Schleswig-Holstein. 1 (Kiel, 1910).
«In Finland, practically speaking, there are no finds from the iron age before the second century A.D. The only exception is a find of three bronze neck-rings, from the bog of Kiukais, of the Scandinavian type belonging to the first phase of the iron age: See Aarne Europaeus in Finska Fornminnesföreningens Tidskrift. 32 (...) 192.» (181n1)
Steensby, H. P. «Pytheas» Geografisk Tidskrift. 24 (Copenhagen, 1917-18) 12.
The Roman period: «As has been fully established, communications from here [Italy] passed along the Elbe to Jutland and along the Vistula to the Baltic and Sweden. By these routes Roman manufactured goods were dispatched to the north, and also much of the new Germanic work produced in the kingdom of the Marcomanni.» (192)
# posted by Nicole Petrin @ 12:14 PM 
